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| Glossary |
Note that in addition to those definitions relating to firearms that are given in this glossary, a more extensive list is provided in Chapter 9, Box 9.1.
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aAIB Air Accidents Investigation Branch (British).
active bloodstains Bloodstains caused by blood that has been made to travel by a force other than that of gravity.
acute Occurring over a short time period.
adipocere formation The hydrolysis of body fats into a waxy, grey substance (adipocere) – a post-mortem process associated with damp conditions.
aerosol A suspension of solid or liquid particles within a gas.
alkaloid Any of a group of nitrogen-containing organic bases that occur in plants and fungi; many of which are potentially toxic.
allele A particular gene can have a number of forms, which differ in the base sequence of the DNA; each of these is an allele.
allele frequency How common a particular allele is in a population.
anagen phase (of hair) The phase in the growth cycle of an individual hair in which the hair is actively growing.
analyte The component of the sample targeted by the analysis.
antibodies Proteins produced by the lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in response to the introduction of foreign substances (known as an antigens) into the body.
antigens Foreign substances that trigger the production of specific antibodies as part of the body's immune response.
associative evidence Evidence that links, for example, an individual with another individual or with a location.
autopsy The dissection of a corpse for investigative purposes; a procedure that involves both external and internal examination of the deceased. In
ballistics The scientific study of projectile motion.
base pairs The unit of length for DNA. There are two types of base pairs in DNA, A–T and G–C.
bloodstain pattern analysis The interpretation of bloodstain patterns present at violent crime scenes to help reconstruct the events that took place during the commission of a crime.
bulk sample A sample that is large enough to weigh.
cadaveric spasm A condition in which the body becomes rigid immediately after death; thought to be associated with extreme fear or tension experienced just before death.
cast-off stain A type of active bloodstain produced when blood is flung off a blood-soaked object, either as it is moving or as a result of a sudden cessation in its movement.
cause of fire The act, omission or defect that allowed the conditions necessary for the ignition of the fire to occur and the fire to be started.
chemical species Any collection of atoms, ions or molecules that share an identical set of chemical properties.
chromosome A threadlike structure present in the cell nucleus, consisting of a long strand of DNA, carrying many genes, in a complex with protein.
chronic Occurring over a long time period.
class characteristics Characteristics that enable an object to be placed into a particular category, for example identifying a trainer as belonging to a certain brand.
common approach path (CAP) A path that runs from the police cordon to the focal point of a crime scene, designed to allow early and controlled access to the focal point while minimising impact on the scene as a whole.
condensed explosive An explosive that is either a solid or a liquid.
continuity of evidence The provision of a complete, documented account of the progress of an item of evidence from crime scene to court.
controlled drugs In the
cordon A physical barrier erected by the police to encompass a crime scene and thus restrict access to authorised personnel only.
coroner An independent judicial officer who is required to hold investigations into the reported deaths of any individuals whose bodies lie within his or her geographical area of jurisdiction.
corroborative evidence Evidence that supports other evidence.
Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) An independent regulatory body for the accreditation of individual forensic practitioners.
Courts of appeal Within the criminal justice system in
Crime Scene Co-ordinator The person (usually the force's SSM or a senior SOCO) who is given the responsibility for managing the scientific support needs of all of the crime scenes of a given serious crime.
Crime Scene Manager In the case of a serious crime, the individual whose task it is to oversee the processing of a given crime scene.
crime scene reconstruction The reconstruction of those events that may have taken place before, during and immediately after the commission of a crime, based on the evidence available.
Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC) An independent body responsible for the investigation of possible mis-carriages of justice in
cross-examination The questioning in court of a witness appearing for one side (i.e. the prosecution or defence) by the opposing side.
Crown Court The higher of the two criminal courts in
Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) The agency working on behalf of the State that is responsible for the prosecution of the vast majority of criminal offences.
cursive writing Lower case, joined-up handwriting.
cutting agents Substances that are deliberately mixed in with drugs of abuse before sale in order to increase their apparent bulk and/or purity.
deactivated firearms Firearms that have been deliberately rendered incapable of firing projectiles, so that they can be sold as non-firearms.
defendant Term used for an individual standing trial in a court of law.
deflagration A type of chemical explosion in which the speed at which the reaction front moves through the explosive is less than the speed of sound in that material.
dental stone A powder that, when mixed with water in the appropriate ratio, is suitable for taking casts of, for example, footwear impressions.
depressant Any drug that has a depressing effect on the central nervous system, including the inhibition of brain activity.
detonation A type of chemical explosion in which the speed at which the reaction front moves through the explosive is greater than the speed of sound in that material.
diatomaceous earth A geological material produced by the sedimentary deposition of diatom shells.
diploid Having two sets of chromosomes; one from each parent.
dispersed explosive An explosive that is either a gas or an aerosol.
district judges Full-time professional lawyers who preside (alone) in a minority of the Magistrates' Courts in
dropdown The falling of burning materials during a fire, thereby producing secondary ignition at low elevation.
drugs of abuse A collective term given to those substances that are used recreationally by individuals in order to induce changes in mood and/or perception.
either way offences Offences that may be tried in either of the two criminal courts – the Magistrates' Court or the Crown Court.
EOD Explosives Ordnance Disposal (i.e. Army Bomb Disposal)
ESDA Electrostatic detection apparatus – a piece of equipment used by document examiners, mainly for the visualisation of indented writing.
ESLA Electrostatic lifting apparatus – a portable device used to transfer impressions, such as a dusty footprint, onto a Mylar sheet, in order to preserve it for future examination.
exons The parts of genes that carry protein information.
expert witness An individual who is required to appear in court in order to give factual information, and opinion based on fact, from within his or her area of expertise.
Expert Witness Institute (EWI) An independent body launched in 1996 to provide support and training for expert witnesses.
explosion The violent effect produced due to the rapid build-up of gas pressure at a location because of the sudden liberation of energy and, in most cases, gas at that location.
explosive Any substance that is capable of producing an explosion, although this term is commonly restricted to those substances that can produce explosions due to chemical reactions.
external ballistics The study of projectile behaviour after discharge from the firearm but prior to impact with the target.
facial reconstruction A highly skilled technique used to reconstruct the facial appearance of an individual from his or her bare skull, based on knowledge of the average thickness of soft tissue over many different points on the skull.
false negative A negative result given when the substance being tested for is actually present.
false positive A positive result given by a substance other than that being tested for.
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation (US).
fibre Any long, thin, flexible, solid object with a high length to transverse cross-section area ratio.
fire The phenomenon in which heat and light are liberated by the process of combustion.
fire accelerant A flammable material (most commonly liquid) used to facilitate and/or increase the rate of spread of fire and/or increase the intensity of fire.
first officer attending (FOA) The first police officer to arrive at a given incident scene.
flameover See Rollover.
flashback An explosion occurring during a fire when fresh air is suddenly allowed to mix with air in a compartment that is both oxygen-depleted and rich in flammable, volatile pyrolysis products.
forensic entomology The study of insects as applied to legal disputes.
forensic odontologist A specialist in the scientific study of teeth who provides information germane to the resolution of legal disputes.
forensic pathologist A medically trained specialist who, through the performance of forensic autopsy, provides legally required information concerning the death of an individual.
Forensic Science Service (FSS) An executive agency of the Home Office and the biggest supplier of forensic science services in the
forensic toxicology The scientific study of poisons – their nature and effects – in relation to the law.
friction ridge skin In humans, and other primates, a special type of thickened, ridged skin that covers the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
FSS See Forensic Science Service.
fuel-controlled fire A fire that is limited by the supply of fuel, not the availability of oxygen.
gametes The sex cells; sperm in males, eggs in females.
genotype For a particular gene, the combination of alleles at that genetic locus. More widely, the combination of genes carried by an individual – his or her genetic make-up.
genotype frequency How common a particular genotype is in a population.
gunshot residues (GSR) The heterogeneous mix of finely divided particles that is expelled alongside the intended projectile(s) when a firearm (other than an air weapon) is discharged.
hallucinogen Any drug that alters the perception and mood of an individual, without either stimulating or inhibiting brain activity.
haploid Having only one set of chromosomes. Usually applies to gametes.
Hardy–Weinberg principle A mathematical relationship that relates allele frequencies to genotype frequencies; if an allele frequency is known, predictions can be made about how frequent certain genotypes will be. The Hardy–Weinberg principle represents an idealised population, correction factors are applied to represent real populations.
Henry System A ten-print fingerprint classification system devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry and adopted in
heterozygous Having two different alleles for a given gene or DNA sequence.
high explosive An explosive that normally detonates rather than deflagrates.
HOLMES Home Office Large Major Enquiry System – the nationally networked computer system used by the police to store and retrieve information obtained during the investigation of serious crimes.
homozygous Having two identical alleles for a given gene or DNA sequence.
hypostasis A post-mortem condition, similar in appearance to bruising, caused by the settlement of blood in the lowermost parts of the body during the early stages of decomposition. Also known as post-mortem lividity or livor mortis.
indented writing Writing that appears in the form of an impression on a surface below that originally written on.
indictable only offences Offences that must be tried on indictment in the higher of the two criminal courts – the Crown Court. This category covers the most serious of crimes, for example murder, blackmail and rape.
individual characteristics Characteristics that are unique to a particular object (e.g. a tool, tyre or shoe) and, as such, are potentially useful in the identification of scene impressions.
intergenic DNA DNA sequences between genes; some of this has no obvious function and is considered to be ‘junk' DNA.
internal ballistics The study of what occurs in the span of time between the firing pin striking the primer and the projectile(s) leaving the firearm.
Interpol The International Criminal Police Organization.
introns DNA sequences between exons, often considered to be a type of ‘junk' DNA.
‘junk' DNA DNA sequences whose function, if they have any, is currently unknown. ‘Junk' DNA does not contain genetic information for RNA or proteins.
jury A panel of 12 individuals who are randomly selected from the general population and whose role is to try defendants in the Crown Court under the auspices of a judge.
Justices of the Peace See Lay magistrates.
latent fingerprints Fingerprints that are not visible to the naked eye. Such fingerprints need to be visualised, using appropriate development techniques, before examination.
lay magistrates Unpaid, part-time volunteers who preside (usually in a panel of three) in the vast majority of the Magistrates' Courts in
likelihood ratio How much more likely an event is compared with the alternative event.
Livescan A recently-developed technique, adopted by some police forces, in which fingerprints are recorded by electronic scanning.
livor mortis See Hypostasis.
Locard's exchange principle A principle based on the notion that ‘every contact leaves a trace' or, in other words, any contact between individuals, or between an individual and a physical location, leads to the transference of trace evidence.
locus The position of a gene on the chromosome.
Magistrates' Court The lower of the two criminal courts in
magnetic powder applicator A special device used to apply magnetic fingerprint powder to a surface suspected of bearing latent fingerprints. Excess powder is subsequently removed by an internal magnet.
manner of death Whether a death was due to accident, homicide, natural causes or suicide.
match probability The likelihood that two people selected at random could have an identical DNA profile.
matrix That part of the sample other than the chemical species being analysed for.
microsatellite DNA Tandem repetitive DNA that has very short repeats of 2 to 4 base pairs, these are the same as short tandem repeats (STRs).
minisatellite DNA Tandem repetitive DNA that has repeat lengths of 6 base pairs to about 100 base pairs and are often equated with variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs).
mitochondrial DNA A small DNA circle that is not in the cell's nucleus but within those parts of the cell known as mitochondria.
modus operandi (MO) of a criminal The way in which the perpetrator of a crime carries out the act.
mummification The preservation of a corpse through desiccation – a post-mortem process associated with warm, dry conditions.
mutation A change in a gene, an alteration in its DNA sequence.
NAFIS National Automated Fingerprint Identification System; the national fingerprint database used by police forces in
NDNAD The National DNA Database®, established in 1995 and run by the Forensic Science Service.
nuclear DNA DNA present in chromosomes in the cell nucleus.
nucleotides Biochemicals, each made up of a base, a sugar and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
oxidant See Oxidising agent.
oxidising agent A chemical species that is capable of accepting electrons from another chemical species. Also known as an oxidant.
passive bloodstains Bloodstains that are formed solely under the influence of gravity.
phenotype The observable characteristics of a person or organism.
photosuperimposition A forensic technique in which a photographic image of the bare skull of the decedent is superimposed onto a photographic portrait, taken during life, of a possible match.
plastic fingerprints Fingerprint impressions formed when the fingertips are pushed into some suitably soft material such as soap, fresh paint or candle wax.
plea-bargaining An arrangement whereby the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a less serious allegation, in exchange for the prosecution not pursuing a more serious allegation.
poison Any substance that has an injurious or fatal effect when introduced into, or taken up by, a living organism.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) An in vitro method of amplifying (increasing the amount of) a chosen sequence of DNA. It is extremely sensitive, allowing the detection and analysis of very small amounts of DNA found at crime scenes.
post-mortem examination See Autopsy.
post-mortem interval The period of time that has elapsed since death occurred.
post-mortem lividity See Hypostasis.
presumptive tests Tests that are designed to quickly and cheaply indicate the presence of certain analytes. Such tests provide qualitative but not quantitative information and are not definitive.
primary transfer The direct transfer of trace evidence from one object to another.
quantitative Concerned with the amount or concentration of the substances under investigation.
questioned document Any document over which there is some dispute or query, usually concerning its authenticity or origin.
radial loop pattern A fingerprint pattern in which the loop opens in the direction of the thumb (i.e. towards the radial bone of the forearm).
radiation-induced flashover The involvement in a fire, over a very short time span, of essentially all of the fuel items in a room or similar compartment as radiation from hot gases present in the upper parts of the compartment causes the ignition of the exposed surfaces of fuel items.
reactivated firearms Legitimately deactivated firearms that have been illegally converted back into a state in which they are capable of firing projectiles again.
reducing agent A chemical species that is capable of donating electrons to another chemical species. Also known as a reductant.
reductant See Reducing agent.
refractive index (of a medium) The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium. Symbol n.
ricochet The deviation in the flight-path of a projectile as a consequence of impact.
rigor mortis The stiffening of the body after death, a temporary condition that begins a few hours after death and wears off after a period of two or three days.
rollover The ignition of, and rapid spread of flame within, the hot gases that have accumulated in, or are venting from, the upper part of a burning room or similar compartment. Also known as flameover.
satellite bloodstains Bloodstains produced when smaller droplets of blood are thrown off by a larger droplet (known as the parent) impacting on a surface.
satellite DNA A general term referring to any type of tandem repetitive DNA.
scale cast A cast made by embedding a hair in a suitable varnish and then removing the hair once the varnish has dried, forming an impression of the pattern of scales on the hair's surface.
scene impression An impression found at a crime scene (e.g. of a tool, shoe or tyre), which may be of potential forensic importance.
Scenes of Crime Officers (SOCOs) The title given to those members of police scientific support who specialise in the processing of crime scenes. Note that this title is not universal and some police forces in the
Scientific Support Manager (SSM) In most police forces in
script Lower case, unjoined handwriting.
seat of fire The location where the fire started. Also known as its point of origin.
secondary transfer The indirect transfer of trace evidence from one object to another via an intermediary object.
secretors Individuals in whom blood-group antigens are present in non-blood body fluids, such as urine, semen and saliva.
serological test Any test that involves the use of a specific antibody to detect the presence of a specific antigen.
short tandem repeat (STRs) A type of tandem repeat where the repeat length is short, by definition between 2 and 4 base pairs. These are extremely important in modern DNA profiling.
simulation experiments A series of experiments designed to simulate a particular aspect of a crime, which, through a process of elimination, may help to pinpoint exactly what happened in that specific aspect.
skeletalisation The normal process of post-mortem decomposition whereby the soft tissues of the body gradually dissolve to reveal the skeleton within.
SOCOs See Scenes of Crime Officers.
soil profile A vertical section through a soil showing the different horizons from the surface to the underlying parent material.
soil structure The arrangement of voids, individual soil particles and aggregates of these particles within a soil.
specimen handwriting Samples of handwriting obtained from an individual suspected of authorship of a piece of questioned handwriting for the purposes of comparison.
stimulant Any drug that arouses and stimulates the central nervous system.
stipendiary magistrates See District judges.
summary only offences Offences that can be tried only in the lower of the two criminal courts – the Magistrates' Court.
Superglue fuming A visualisation technique for latent fingerprints in which a surface, or object, suspected of bearing prints is exposed to ethyl cyanoacrylate fumes.
tandem repeat A type of DNA sequence where a short sequence of DNA is repeated consecutively a number of times. These have important forensic applications.
tape lift A portion of sticky tape that has been brought into contact with the area to be sampled in order to recover trace materials such as hairs and other fibres.
telogen phase (of hair) The phase in the growth cycle of an individual hair in which the hair is no longer actively growing.
terminal ballistics The study of the behaviour of projectiles when they strike their targets.
test impression An impression made, under test conditions, of a suspect item (e.g. a tool, shoe or tyre) in order to compare it with a scene impression.
toxin Any poisonous substance that is naturally produced by an animal, plant, fungus or microorganism.
trace evidence Minute amounts of materials (such as glass shards, paint chips, or hairs or other fibres) that are inevitably transferred through contact between individuals, or between an individual and a physical location, according to Locard's exchange principle.
trace sample An amount so small that it cannot be weighed – although it may well be possible to establish its weight by means of quantitative chemical analysis.
transfer bloodstains Bloodstains that have been deposited on surfaces as a result of direct contact with objects contaminated with wet blood.
UKAS United Kingdom Accreditation Service – a government-recognised national body for the accreditation of laboratories, including those offering forensic services.
ulnar loop pattern A fingerprint pattern in which the loop opens in the direction of the little finger (i.e. towards the ulnar bone of the forearm).
variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) A type of tandem repeat; the length of the repeat is not strictly defined but they are often taken to be 6 base pairs to about100 base pairs.
ventilation-controlled fire A fire that is limited by the supply of oxygen, not the availability of fuel.
watermark A distinctive design that is incorporated into paper by reducing the number of fibres present within the patterned area during the manufacturing process.
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